Crypto Market Research

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics. Ethereum network activity surged early in January, with gas fees spiking before stabilizing at lower levels, while blob gas usage remained steady around 400k. Excess blob gas saw a sharp drawdown this week but quickly rebounded, reflecting sustained activity on the network. Uniswap V3 continues to sustain trading activity amid a volatile market.

Bitcoin's brief climb above $100K to start the year quickly faltered as economic data cast doubt on sustained U.S. interest rate cuts, fueling inflation concerns and weighing on risk assets. Derivatives sentiment failed to support the 100k move and realized volatility collapsed amid lower trade volumes, even as open interest levels held steady. Despite the steep volatility term structure, shorter-term implied volatility is still trading at a significantly higher level than the level of realized volatility. End of December 2024 marks the largest premium of forward-looking volatility since the U.S. elections, despite no clear event risk.

Despite the largest single-day expiration events on Dec 27, 2024, the volatility of BTC, ETH and SOL spot prices has been decreasing, rather than spiking, defying expectations of a volatile event driven by a delta-hedging unwind. In our December review, we cover why this was the case, highlighting that only $65.53M of the $350M BTC options expired in-the-money (ITM), including calls with strikes far above the spot price and puts below it.

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics. Ethereum gas fees spiked to $5 as demand rebounded post-holidays. Excess blob gas dipped slightly but recovered to 55M as Layer 2 activity resumed. Uniswap V3 also saw a holiday trading slowdown, now stabilising.

Far from the explosion in volatility expected by some commentators, December’s end-of-year options expiration event has resulted in a collapse in realized volatility levels back to the bottom of their December range. Perpetual swap open interest levels remained consistent throughout the event, suggesting that perp markets weren’t used to hedge a significant proportion of the delta of the expired options contrasts, perhaps explaining the lack of volatility that materialized as they expired.

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics. We highlight the stabilisation of gas fees on Ethereum's network with no significant spikes in demand. Meanwhile, blob gas usage remains elevated at 400k, revealing ongoing and sustained Layer 2 demand for data uploads. An insight into DeFi activity is marked by Uniswap V3 transaction volume on Arbitrum and liquidation activities across Aave and Compound.

BTC’s spot price has recorded yet another all-time high, but unlike previous records this quarter, derivatives markets haven’t reflected the same leveraged bullish positioning. This is likely a result of the reset in leverage earlier last week, which has seen funding rates return to “normal” levels across the board, a letup in the growth of futures yields and a slightly less exuberant skew toward calls in options.

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics. We highlight Ethereum's increased network demand and the change in hourly average gas fees burnt per block and excess blob gas fees associated with this. An insight into DeFi activity is marked by Uniswap V3 transaction volume on Arbitrum and liquidation activities across Aave and Compound.

BTC and ETH’s oscillating spot levels over the last week below psychological price targets have left their mark on derivatives markets. A pullback in spot price was exacerbated by a spate of liquidations of over-leveraged long positions in perpetual swaps markets. The aftermath sees a fall in open interest in the instruments, particularly in ETH markets, and a reset of previously overheated funding rates to much lower (but still positive) levels across the board.

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics. We highlight Ethereum's surging network activity: burnt gas fees neared 2 ETH per block alongside transfer costs peaking at $10 amid a growing ETH spot price. Excess blob gas remained elevated, exceeding 70M- a factor of consideration for Layer 2s. An insight into DeFi activity is marked by Uniswap V3 transaction volume on Arbitrum and liquidation activities across Aave and Compound.

Following several repeated attempts, BTC has finally breached its $100K price target. The effect on derivatives markets is a clear increase in bullish positioning on top of the resilient positive sentiment that we had commented on in the build-up to the move. Perpetual swaps and futures markets reflect a persistent desire for further upside exposure. Short-tenor implied volatility, which has repeatedly inverted the term structure in tandem with spot price rallies, has risen once again as traders rush for exposure to the rally through options.

November’s turbulent spot price movements had a pronounced impact on derivatives markets, highlighting notable trends in crypto volatility. The term structure of at-the-money implied volatility became a focal point in the weeks leading up to the election on November 5, 2024, as short-term implied volatility surged to levels approximately 25 percentage points higher than post-election expirations. This spike, coupled with bullish positioning observed in perpetual swaps and futures markets, underscored a strong demand for optionality at expirations near the election date, reflecting traders’ singular focus on the event's outcome. In the two weeks following the election, the term structure continued to oscillate between inversion and steepness, signaling a highly responsive market that rapidly adjusted to shifting sentiment and evolving conditions.

As Bybit celebrates its sixth anniversary, it stands as a powerhouse in the crypto exchange landscape, commanding a 12.21% market share and surpassing 50 million users in 2024. With daily spot trading volumes exceeding $10 billion and perpetual swaps also dominating, Bybit’s journey reflects both its growth and the evolving dynamics of crypto markets. We explore Bybit's growth story to discover trends in BTC and altcoin trading, patterns in weekly liquidity and volatility, how institutions are reshaping the space, and what this means for your next big move. Read now to stay ahead of the market!

A bounce-off of the key $100K price level for BTC has slowed growth in bullish positioning this week, but it hasn’t yet resulted in a sharp spate of liquidations or position closing. ETH has sustained its outperformance over the week, following the announcement of SEC Chair Gary Gensler’s January 2025 departure, and is joined in its outperformance by a swath of large-cap altcoins that had previously come under the scrutiny of the SEC under Gensler’s leadership, as reflected in bullish funding rates paid by long positions for the privilege of leveraged long exposure through the contract.

Spot prices have surged in the two weeks since the Nov 5, 2024 U.S. elections, sending BTC far beyond its all-time price highs, while ETH has lagged behind. The implied volatility term structure has inverted once more alongside movements in spot, but longer-dated tenors remain relatively range-bound. Derivatives market indicators have shown persistently strong positive sentiment: perpetual funding rates remain constantly positive, open interest for futures contracts is growing rapidly and options skew is stubbornly positive.

Donald Trump’s election signals a pivotal shift in cryptocurrency policy, moving from skepticism to advocacy, which may redefine the regulatory landscape. The election result triggered immediate and substantial reactions in the crypto markets, particularly evident in Bitcoin's price surge, reflecting heightened investor optimism. A Republican-controlled U.S. Congress could lead to clearer and more favorable regulations for digital assets, fostering innovation and investment in the sector. As Bitcoin's dominance persists, emerging regulatory clarity may catalyze a resurgence in altcoins, particularly for platforms like Ethereum and Solana, which are poised to benefit from a pro-crypto environment.

Derivatives markets continue to reflect the bullish momentum of recent weeks. Spot yields are approaching the positive highs observed last week, signalling robust demand as traders are willing to pay a premium for leveraged long exposure via the futures contracts. Skew levels and perpetual contracts funding rates remain firmly positive, reinforcing the optimistic sentiment and indicating that market participants are seeking exposure to upwards price action. Meanwhile, implied volatility remains within a range-bound pattern, while the term structure remains inverted. Current levels of inversion have yet to surpass the heightened activity seen during the pre-election period, but remain closely linked to spot movements.

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics, This week we highlight the surging demand for blob gas, with the hourly average excess blob gas per Ethereum block reaching 60-80M. Meanwhile, the Beacon Chain deposits remained steady at 32.4M, with ongoing withdrawals and inflows balancing each other out. Ethereum’s gas fees saw a correction, aligning with the post-election rally in ETH’s spot price. The average cost to transfer ETH spiked to $3.40, with burnt gas fees returning to early October levels. An insight into DeFi activity is marked by Uniswap V3 transaction volume on Arbitrum and liquidation activities across Aave and Compound.

One week after the election, spot prices have shown remarkable strength, with BTC reaching new all-time highs following an explosive rise. ETH, while not yet at record levels, has also gained upward momentum, displaying a steady increase since the election date. In the derivatives market, sentiment has strengthened for both tokens: futures implied yields, perpetuals funding rates, and skew all indicate a highly positive outlook. ATM implied volatility, which initially dropped after the election event risk passed, has since surged, inverting the term structure. Both BTC and ETH now benefit from a powerful combination of spot price gains and robust bullish derivatives activity, signalling strong demand to participate in further upside potential.

As the outcome of the 2024 U.S. presidential election became clear, short-dated implied volatility levels dropped significantly for both BTC and ETH, with term structures flattening for BTC and evolving into a steep curve for ETH. Leveraged positions, which had unwound during pre-election spot volatility, have since rebounded, leading to a rise in open interest across both perpetuals and futures. Despite the passing of the event risk, positioning across all markets remains close to all-time highs, indicating that traders are willing to continue to pay for leveraged long exposure as BTC trades at all-time highs.

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics, November has seen the Beacon Chain balance drop as withdrawals have dominated, while Ethereum’s on-chain activity slowed despite an increase in it's spot price following the US election. Separately, Solana continues to near Ethereum in gas fee generation. There was an increased demand in blob gas usage on Ethereum with Hourly Average Excess Blob Gas per Ethereum Block maintaining spikes of 70-80M. DeFi activity shifted, reflected in Uniswap V3 transactions on Arbitrum and liquidations across Aave and Compound.

In the days leading up to the election we’ve observed a decline in both futures implied yields and perpetuals funding rates. With election-related uncertainty and recent spot price fluctuations, it’s clear that traders are now hesitant to pursue leveraged exposure in BTC and ETH as aggressively as they did last week, when the buildup of leverage was evident. This points to a reduced appetite for high-stakes directional bets, as BTC’s implied volatility remains elevated and continues to rise. Despite this, BTC’s volatility smiles keep signalling a bullish sentiment. In contrast, ETH’s implied volatility levels have slowed and moved sideways over recent days, with options’ skew reflecting a more bearish short-term sentiment. The spotlight therefore remains on BTC as the election cycle reaches its conclusion.

As the U.S. election approaches, short-tenor implied volatility has surged to multi-month highs, outperforming the far-end of the term structure and resulting in a significant inversion in the term structure. This indicates strong moves in positioning ahead of the election early next week, reminiscent of the same pattern observed prior to the ETF launch in January. ETH derivatives suggest that the second-largest cryptocurrency is likely to continue its long-standing trend of underperformance amid event risk, trailing BTC across all metrics and carrying a 10-point volatility premium over BTC.

This week's edition of our Crypto DeFi Analytics, October saw stable Beacon Chain balances as withdrawals matched deposits, while Ethereum’s on-chain activity slowed alongside a range-bound spot. On October 28, Solana’s gas fee generation exceeded Ethereum's, collecting $2.54M to Ethereum's $2.07M. Blob gas usage on Ethereum peaked, with excess blob gas spiking past 50M. DeFi activity shifted, reflected in Uniswap V3 transactions on Arbitrum and liquidations across Aave and Compound.

The bullish pre-election positioning that we saw building up earlier in October has continued with vigour over the last 3 days. Futures-implied yields, perpetual swap funding rates, and now implied volatility have risen to months-long highs, with short-tenor option expiries out-performing to invert the term structure of volatility in a similar manner to the shape we observed ahead of the ETF launch in January. ETH derivatives indicate an expectation that the second largest crypto-currency will continue its years-long trend of under-performance through the event risk, lagging BTC in all metrics and assigning a 10 point volatility premium over BTC, but echo the trend of increasing bullish sentiment that we see expressed across markets.

With only two weeks left until the 2024 U.S. elections, ATM implied volatility levels have increased largely for 14-day tenor options, even as overall implied volatility levels have been trending downward, resulting in a very steep term structure. Sentiment remains bullish, as indicated by key metrics: open interest for both futures and call options is rising, and funding rates are positive for all monitored tokens, not just BTC and ETH. While the focus is primarily on majors BTC and ETH leading up to the election, traders are therefore anticipating a broader impact on the entire crypto ecosystem.

Block Scholes' Crypto Senti-Meter aggregates several measures metrics to measure the sentiment expressed by crypto-asset derivatives markets. Our index methodology leverages 4 years of advanced derivatives analytics, and is strongly correlated with movements in spot prices. In this second iteration of the index, we measure changes in momentum in derivatives market sentiment by evaluating the most recent value against its recent history.

The positive sentiment observed last week has consolidated, with bullishness reflected across key metrics for both majors. Perpetual funding rates remain positive, implied futures yields continue to show elevated levels and an inverted term structure, and the implied volatility smiles’ skew remains strongly tilted toward calls across tenors. The upcoming election is still impacting market dynamics greatly, with implied volatility for 14-day tenor options in both ETH and BTC rising, now approaching levels seen in longer-tenor options. At the same time, volatility at the far end of the term structure continues to trend sideways, only showing a slight decrease for BTC options. Notably, 7-day tenor options saw a spike in volatility last week, now having dropped sharply and sitting lower than last week.

Despite the recent spot price rally, the extreme dislocation between long- and short-dated implied volatility continues. Market participants are therefore positioning more around post-election expectations than to the recent bullish movements in spot prices, which have led to a rise in realized 7-day volatility that now matches implied volatility levels for 30-day-tenor options. Bullish reactions to spot price activity can be observed, especially in perpetual funding rates, which now trade positively across almost all tokens.

We’ve seen evidence of increasingly positive sentiment in the derivatives markets over the last week. The futures implied yields term structure has inverted, with a dramatic rise at the front end that signals increased demand for near-term long exposure. The perp swap funding rate has remained positive for both BTC and ETH, reflecting bullish sentiment as traders are willing to pay to hold long positions. Additionally, volatility smile skews have grown towards calls, reflecting the increasing appetite for upside exposure that we see in futures. At the same time, while pre-election implied volatility has remained subdued, reflecting relatively stable spot price movements, this positive market sentiment suggests expectations for a continued rise in spot prices that we have not seen in some time.

Structured products are financial instruments that use options to customize investment strategies and enhance yields based on market views. Derive's "Vaults" aim to generate higher yields but carry the risk of loss if the strategy underperforms. This report will examine the key strategies available on the Derive platform, break them down into familiar options strategies, and explain how to leverage the volatility smile to make informed decisions for maximizing yield based on market expectations.

The uncertainty associated with the upcoming U.S. election remains evident for the term structures of both BTC’s and ETH’s implied volatility. While implied volatility levels have been trending downward, realized volatility has been on the rise in early October, driven by recent short-lived fluctuations in spot prices. The downward trend in implied volatility levels contrasts with the buildup of positioning that we typically observe ahead of known event risks, as we saw ahead of the release of BTC Spot ETFs in January 2024.

With less than 30 days left until the US Presidential election, the term structure of ATM implied volatility is clearly showing the same dislocation that we have observed for several months. Implied volatility levels for 30-day-tenor options have moved further up, now trading similar levels to longer-dated options. Despite the relative kink, outright volatility levels have dipped in the past week for both majors. Spot price downside volatility in early October has been reflected in derivatives sentiment, with volatility smiles skewing towards puts at pre-election expiries. While levels have since recovered for BTC OTM options, showing a preference overall for OTM calls, ETH volatility smiles still exhibit a premium assigned to puts at short tenors.

The U.S. presidential election continues to present a volatility premium for expirations later than the Nov 5, 2024 date. While longer-tenor volatility smiles have presented a consistent skew toward OTM calls, short-tenor options have recently followed suit. Derivatives markets have expressed that the pullback in spot prices at the end of September hasn’t had a significantly bearish impact on sentiment.

Despite a general slow down in spot price action for both majors, their derivatives markets have shown confirmation of what we first noticed last week: clear indications of a return to short-term positive sentiment and bullish trading activity. The recent skew towards OTM calls has consolidated, and we now observe a call-skew for smiles across all tenors. Perpetual swap funding rates have been strongly oscillating, but have registered high positive values throughout the week. At the same time, the front end of the term structure for ATM options’ volatility has increased substantially near to the 30-day tenor, as the US election moves closer along the term structure: this is further evidence that the date is influencing market positioning.

Following the Federal Reserve’s 50 bps rate cut on Sep 18, 2024, spot prices for both BTC and ETH have reacted positively. Derivatives markets are exhibiting various indications of positive sentiment: both futures and perpetual swap open interest have maintained high levels, and funding rates have traded positively overall for most tokens. BTC’s open interest for calls has slowly been on the rise, and the volatility smile has grown steadily toward calls for both BTC and ETH. While implied volatility levels for ATM short-dated options have oscillated downward, we see a growing positive outlook overall in the derivatives market for the short term.

Following the cut in the Fed funds interest rate on September 18, 2024 we have seen an increase in spot prices for both major coins and an overall positive sentiment in the derivatives markets. The futures implied yields term structure was largely inverted over the last week, with yields showing high levels for the short term. However, the curve has now disinverted, having returned to similar levels as of last week. Perp swaps funding rates have fully recovered for both tokens, after a long period of stagnant negative rates. While ATM implied volatility levels have been on a slight decline for both BTC and ETH options, skews have been on the rise across all tenors, indicating a general increase in preference towards calls, adding to the evidence of a growing bullish sentiment in derivatives markets after the interest rate cut.

Our report highlights the changing dynamics of Bitcoin in the investment landscape. Since the launch of BTC Spot ETFs in January 2024, Bitcoin has increasingly correlated with risk-on assets, particularly the S&P 500. This development suggests a growing interest from institutional investors, positioning BTC as a significant macro asset. Historically, cryptocurrencies have experienced volatility, but this newfound connection to traditional equities indicates that BTC is becoming a preferred option for investors seeking exposure to broader market trends. As Bitcoin's role evolves, it is increasingly viewed as a potential hedge against inflation and economic uncertainty, similar to gold. This shift in perception underscores the necessity for investors to reassess their strategies, and to consider Bitcoin's potential as both a traditional asset and an emerging digital currency.

The spot recovery we observed last week, for both tokens, has slowed down over the past days, with prices remaining within range-bound action. ETH’s futures yields have dropped for short tenors: while we can observe a flat term-structure for BTC’s yields similar to last week, ETH’s now results in a steep structure. Implied volatility levels have overall dropped similarly for both tokens, with ETH’s options remaining at a consistent volatility premium than BTC’s across all tenors. However, volatility levels for short tenors appear to be on the rise once again. Despite oscillation in implied volatility skew, sentiment has moved sideways, not expressing changes from last week across all tenors.

Derivatives markets continue to look forward to the US Election, pricing volatility for expiries later than the November 5 date at a significant premium to shorter-dated optionality. This is in contrast to the short term events that dominate the calendar in September, with the Federal Reserve set to join the growing global easing of interest rates after CPI figures in August confirmed that inflation is indeed falling in the US. Attention now turns to the labour market, which poses the stronger risk to the Fed’s dual mandate and may dictate the pace of their impending cutting cycle.

After a 12-day period of spot decline since August 26, prices for both major tokens have finally started to recover over the past few days. This rise has positively affected short tenor futures yields, which have risen significantly in the past week, resulting in a flattened term structure. Implied volatility levels for BTC and ETH short-tenor options have been rising dramatically since the beginning of the month, while short-term skews have dropped and rebounded, now being at similar levels as of last week. As a result, ETH options are consistently skewed towards puts for short-tenor options, whereas short-term sentiment for BTC is neutral again and not expressing such a strong preference.

After the recent drop in BTC and ETH spot prices over the last week, we can observe an overall increase in implied volatility levels across the term structure for both major tokens. The front end of the structure has been particularly affected. For example, ETH 7-day option volatility has risen to the same levels as long-tenor options. Derivative markets remain skewed toward OTM puts for both majors for short term options, showing a significant strengthening in a short-term bearish outlook as spot fails to pick up. The negative sentiment for cryptocurrencies continues with open interest for BTC options showing higher levels for puts, and total open interest for perp swaps on the decline following the most recent sell-off.

Despite volatility levels having largely fluctuated for short-tenor ATM options, from the term structure we can once again observe that, as the US election approaches, volatility for options expiring after the election date is rising. We can additionally observe that skew for short-tenor options has been evolving positively in the past few days, with skew levels slightly rising similarly to what happened in mid-August, indicating a more neutral outlook despite the recent spot volatility. Concurrently, long-tenor options have consistently been pricing in higher volatility levels across the term structure, showing a stronger preference towards OTM calls.

Derivatives markets indicate a similar positioning after the Jackson Hole Economic Symposium to that which we saw last week. Federal Reserve Chair Jerome Powell’s confirmation of the beginning of a rate cutting cycle in the Fed’s September meeting did little to change markets’ expectations on the pace of rate cuts, as it had already priced for 100 bps of cuts across the three remaining meetings of the year. Instead, it was the spot price sell-off on August 28 that moved markets -— with indications of a spate of perpetual swap liquidations in majors, and a small but noticeable spike in short-tenor volatility levels. The term structure of volatility holds a similar shape to last week’s, pricing in a volatility premium for expirations covering the upcoming U.S. presidential election on Nov 5, 2024.

Another week of low volatility, sideways price action has none-the-less provided interetsing trade activity in derivatives. The additional bearishness afforded to ETH over BTC has continued, with a more negative funding rate over the past month, at-the-money volatility premium, and stronger skews towards OTM puts, especially at short-dated expiries. Despite this, the volatility markets of both majors indicate a growing premium priced in for the November 5, 2024 U.S. Presidential election date, with an increased bullishness for expiries after the event expressed by a stronger skew towards OTM calls.

Since recovering from the selloff in the first week of August, spot prices have largely moved sideways. This period of relative calmness has opened up a space for a divergence in sentiment between BTC and ETH, with metrics across derivatives markets indicating a stronger bearishness assigned to the latter in the short term. ETH futures-implied yields trade significantly lower, perpetual swap funding rates have moved intermittently negative, and options on ETH trade with a premium to BTC’s implied volatility across the term structure, with short-tenor OTM puts afforded an implied volatility premium over OTM calls.

The past week of spot price action has been relatively calm in comparison to the two that preceded it. Without an obvious catalyst to drive spot prices back to the highs lost in last week’s selloff, the recovery has floundered somewhat. Derivatives markets reflect the elevated uncertainty, with volatility levels trading at their July highs despite a resolution to the inverted shape of their term structure. Sentiment remains more bearish for ETH, which prices in a higher level of implied vol, lower funding rates, and stronger skew towards OTM puts.

Following the market selloff and the surge in volatility we have witnessed last week, derivatives market seem to have stabilized. Volatility has dropped for both BTC and ETH at the front end of the term structure, and funding rates returned positive for BTC while slowly rising for ETH. The period of market distress we have observed after the sudden risk-off event appears to have abated for now. However, skew has confirmed the trend we highlighted last week, as longer-dated volatility smiles remain skewed towards OTM calls and shorter tenors show a preference for OTM puts. While sentiment in the long-run still remains bullish, markets still show caution in the short term.

In the 15 years since its inception, BTC’s price action has displayed an uncanny pattern of repetition. Looking at BTC’s historical price data, we can subdivide each of the three historical cycles of strikingly similar price action for BTC: recovery, boom and bust. The most recent bull run, which started in late 2022, is currently 624 days in. Compared to historical averages, this cycle could last another 350 days, though returns in each cycle have diminished over time. Lower disposable capital among retail traders (as indicated by the lower level of personal savings, following a period of high and persistent inflation) has thus far been expressed in the lack of the exuberance that we’ve come to expect in bull cycles. The changing intra-asset correlation structure between crypto and meme coins suggests that a different type of investor may be behind the most recent rally in prices: institutions. The renewed co-movement with equities coincides with the launch of BTC Spot ETFs in early January 2024, as well as the unlocking of a new pool of demand for crypto.

A week of bullish narratives for crypto at the BTC Nashville conference and the launch of ETH Spot ETFs has been followed by a starkly contrasting sell-off. Crypto has once again proved its position as a 24-hour macro indicator, as it reacted strongly to the weaker-than-expected nonfarm payroll report on Aug 2, 2024. Alongside other risky assets, the news saw a sharp sell-off across crypto assets. However, it hasn’t yet seen the same wipeout of leveraged positioning or elevated volatility levels in the way that we’ve come to expect from double-digit crashes.

One of the largest global market selloffs since the COVID pandemic took its toll on crypto-spot prices, resulting in double-digit selloffs that were harder felt by ETH and alts than BTC. The selloff saw funding rates spike negative as accumualted long positions were likely liquidated, and the volatility term structure inverted as traders rushed to cover exposure to further downside moves in the short term. However, volatility levels did not spike above their year-to-date highs for either major, and longer-dated volatility smiles remained steadfastly skewed towards OTM calls. This indicates that while this was strong move in the short term, traders are not yet concerned about long-term performance.

Using SOFA structured products to express market views offered several advantages over taking the same exposure on offchain or centralised alternatives. Trading options positions onchain removes counterparty risk as settlement is ensured by the verifiable logic of a smart contract and full collateralisation. Trading on SOFA offers exposure to the RCH token, which is airdropped to users on a periodic schedule. These tokens are awarded to users according to the proportion of volume that they trade in each recording period. Onchain positions in SOFA structured products are tokenised using leverage the ERC-1155 token standard. This allows for custom position parameters to be stored on the token itself, allowing for a more accurate valuation of the position so that it can more easily be composed and used as collateral in other trades.

The dramatic events of last weekend’s assassination attempt on Donald Trump have coincided with a strong recovery in crypto spot and, consequently, derivatives markets. Traders appear to express the “Trump Trade” just one week after spot prices crashed as the Republican candidate saw the probability of his re-election soar. Futures: Yields have recovered their pre–sell-off levels, and continue to express a healthy demand for leverage using derivatives contracts. We see similar levels in both BTC and ETH, despite ETH’s impending ETF launch, while open interest levels remain consistent with pre–sell-off levels. Perpetuals: While we don’t see a recovery in the number of open contracts to pre–sell-off levels, we do see a return to a moderately healthy positive funding rate paid from longs to shorts in all markets except TON. Options: Volatility at short tenors has rallied once again in response to short-term spot moves, first compressing the term structure and then steepening as the front end falls down once again. As it has done several times during short-term price volatility, short, sudden moves in spot price haven’t been enough to meaningfully lift long-run expectations of volatility.

While volatility has generally been on the rise for both BTC and ETH, the term structure of volatility has changed dramatically especially at shorter tenors, now having inverted at the front end and continuing to trade at a premium for ETH options compared to BTC options. Volatility skew suggests that call options are preferred for both digital currencies. A general bullish trend is observed but more strongly for BTC, as reflected in the future implied yield chart and the perp swap funding rate, if not the skew of its volatility surface. Despite the recent approval of an ETH spot ETF, BTC is still holds a stronger bullish sentiment in derivatives space.

Spot prices have performed a significant recovery since bouncing off the lower bound of their recent range almost one week ago. As a result, delivered volatility has stayed at its highs and has materially increased implied volatility at short-tenor options and inverted the term structure. The recovery has inspired a return to double digit yields implied by both BTC and ETH futures markets, but only the former asset sees a similar sentiment expressed by its perpetual swap funding rates. ETH still has its months-long-held volatility premium over BTC of around 10 points, but its short-tenors did not push as close to the levels at the back end of the term structure leaving its term structure slightly steeper.

Futures: Future-implied yields have recovered from their spike lower, but continue their downward trend over the month. Perps: Despite the recent bearish price action, we don’t see a widespread or persistently negative funding rate in perpetual swap markets except for TON. Open Interest in majors has fallen during the period of spot market volatility as traders close out positions Options: ETH volatility trades at a 10–15 point premium to BTC’s at all tenor points on the term structure, has recovered its volatility smile skew toward OTM calls much faster than BTC, and has seen incredible trade volumes in calls that far outweigh the activity in its puts. ETH derivatives markets continue to reflect different positioning when compared to BTC, which may be linked to hopes and expectations of the imminent launch of its first Spot ETFs in the U.S. However, ETH’s volatility premium above BTC is not a new phenomenon, and is also reflected in the increased realized volatility with which it has moved for much of the past month.

The latest venture of spot prices down to the bottom of their range has seen volatility levels at short tenors spike while traders rush to protect against further downside price action. While funding rates has remained steadily positive and short tenor future-implied yields have recovered some of their lost ground, volatility smiles remain skewed towards OTM puts and short tenor volatility has not fallen back from the levels of longer dated tenors. ETH retains its 10 vol point premium over BTC volatility at equivalent tenors and its term structure trades much flatter, continuing a trend that we have seen several times over the past month of range-bound price action.

As spot prices trade at their lowest levels since early May, we see a stark divergence in the sentiment priced in by BTC and ETH options markets. ETH continues to trade with a 10-15 volatility premium across the term structure, and the most recent move lower in spot prices has seen BTC vol smile skew turned decidedly bearish at short tenors while ETH smiles skew neutral or towards calls at all tenors. While the fall in future-implied yields has recovered to last weeks levels, funding rates in the two majors have repeatedly charged short positions since the 9th June -- a phenomenon that we observe across perpetual-swap markets.

As spot prices trade at their lowest levels since early May, we see a stark divergence in the sentiment priced in by BTC and ETH options markets. ETH continues to trade with a 10-15 volatility premium across the term structure, and the most recent move lower in spot prices has seen BTC vol smile skew turned decidedly bearish at short tenors while ETH smiles skew neutral or towards calls at all tenors. While the fall in future-implied yields has recovered to last weeks levels, funding rates in the two majors have repeatedly charged short positions since the 9th June -- a phenomenon that we observe across perpetual-swap markets.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Yields implied by futures prices have declined over the past week, steepening term structures that have experienced several inversions in the past month. The reduction in leverage has been more pronounced for BTC compared to ETH, as ETH's perpetual swap funding rate remains active but below the levels observed at the end of May. Volatility expectations are trending slightly upward, in line with the increased market choppiness over the last week, and ETH volatility markets continue to command a premium. Reflecting their futures markets, ETH's skew indicates slightly more bullish positioning than BTC's, with both vol smiles moving closer to neutral for shorter-dated expiries.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

With BTC failing once again to break range highs, implied vol at the front-end of the term structure for both majors has increased over the last week, whilst vol at the back-end has either drifted lower, or continues to trade sideways. This had led to a more compressed term structure. The vol smile skew for BTC has largely traded sideways, and still remains skewed towards OTM calls. However, ETH is skewed towards OTM puts at short-dated tenors as implied vol for OTM puts has risen approximately 8% over the last week. In addition, demand for leveraged long exposure has fallen as investors look to exercise caution following BTC’s inability to break range highs. Annualised yields have fallen across the term structure, and funding rates continue to trade close to zero.

With few macro and crypto-specific events on the immediate horizon, volatility has largely continued to trade sideways in both majors over the past week as spot prices trade near range highs of $68.9K and $3.8K. The vol smile skew for BTC and ETH at short-dated tenors has increased from previous neutral levels, as implied vol for OTM puts has fallen. Over the past month, demand for leveraged long exposure in both majors has increased as futures yields have risen consistently, indicating that investors are willing to pay a premium above spot price in order to gain exposure to the underlying asset. Over a shorter lookback period of a few days, yields at short-dated tenors have fallen in both majors, although the long term trend remains intact.

Block Scholes' Crypto Senti-Meter aggregates several measures metrics to measure the sentiment expressed by crypto-asset derivatives markets. Our index methodology leverages 4 years of advanced derivatives analytics, and is strongly correlated with movements in spot prices.

Volatility has fallen across the term structure in both majors over the past week as they continue to trade near range highs of $68.9K and $3.9K. Following the news of an upgrade in the probability of an Ethereum ETF, implied vol spiked at the front-end, inverting the term structure. This inversion has since corrected itself, with implied vol at the front-end falling. BTC’s vol smile skew has fallen to more neutral levels as implied vol for OTM calls falls, indicating reduced short-term bullish sentiment. However, ETH is heavily skewed towards calls due to implied vol for OTM puts falling, as investors reposition themselves due to the recent ETF news. Demand for leveraged long exposure, which is stronger in ETH, fell at the start of the week, as indicated by spot yields, before rising again at the front-end.

In our report ahead of the Dencun upgrade in March, we forecast a swift migration of L2 transaction data to the new, dedicated blob space. We also expected the swift recovery in gas usage to the 15 million unit per block target, but at a much lower base fee due to the lower usage by L2s. While we were correct to predict a fall in the base fee burned, the impact on the net supply dynamics of ETH has been swifter than we expected. The new supply of ETH minted on the Beacon chain now outweighs the burned supply for the first time since the Merge, removing a potential tailwind that failed to support ETH against BTC during the last 18 months of under-performance.

Volatility has continued to gradually rise across the term structure, with ETH spiking at all tenors over the last day following an upgrade in the probability of an Ethereum spot ETF being approved. With implied volatility spiking particularly at the front-end, the term structure has become inverted. Implied volatility for ETH options now sits at levels not seen since April. The vol smile skew also recovered towards calls over the past week, but has since sold off at the front-end as investors rush to purchase OTM puts for downside protection as spot price reaches range highs of $71K and a $3.7K. Leverage in futures markets has increased, particularly at short-dated tenors which have risen beyond longer-dated tenors, indicating a demand for leveraged long exposure that is stronger for ETH.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Volatility has gradually risen across the term structure as BTC trades near its range lows of $60K, but has still not deviated from its longer term downward trend. ETH continues to trade 5-7 vols higher than BTC. Despite a strong start to the month where skew recovered following the spot sell-off which saw investors purchase OTM puts for downside protection, the skew at short-dated tenors has traded with some uncertainty recently. ETH’s skew continues to trade lower than BTC’s, indicating more bearish positioning. Leverage - indicated by perpetual swap funding rates and futures-implied yields - has increased, particularly at short-dated tenors which have risen beyond longer-dated tenors, indicating demand for leveraged long exposure as both majors sit at precarious levels.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Volatility has fallen following the recent spot sell-off, during which implied vol at short-dated tenors had spiked above longer-dated tenors and inverted the term structure. ETH continues to trade between 5-10 vols higher than BTC. In addition, the sell-off in spot saw a strong skew towards puts in both majors as investors became concerned with buying OTM puts for downside protection. This has since recovered - due to the selling of OTM puts - although ETH’s skew trades slightly lower than BTC at short-dated tenors, indicating more bearish positioning. Leverage as indicated by perpetual swap funding rates and futures-implied yields has increased slightly, but still remains far below the extremes observed in March.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Leverage as indicated by perpetual swap funding rates and futures-implied yields remains much lower than the extremes we saw ahead of the flush-out at the end of March. Implied volatility levels have crashed lower for both tokens and across their term structures, led by a significant under-performance in shorter-dated tenors. Vol smiles remain intermittently skewed towards OTM puts at short tenors as the market appears to brace for further downside in the short term. ETH vols trade some 5 vols higher than BTC’s across the term structure, with both future-implied yields and vol smile skews indicating more bearish positioning than in BTCs markets, particularly in the short term.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Following a bounce in spot price at range lows, BTC and ETH currently trade at $66K and $3.2K respectively. Funding rates remain close to zero for both majors, and future-implied yields are near their lowest levels in more than a month as BTC trades in the middle of its sideways trending range. In the past week, volatility at short-dated tenor options has fallen, correcting the front-end of BTC and ETH’s previously inverted term structures. The fall in volatility was matched by a recovery in skew from OTM puts to more neutral levels at all tenors less than 3-months, indicating that investors are less concerned with buying OTM puts for downside protection.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Funding rates and future-implied yields are near their lowest levels in more than a month after the weekend’s spot selloff took prices back to the bottom end of the sideways trending range. Volatility at short tenor options rallied, causing an inversion in both BTC and ETH’s term structures at the front end, without lifting volatility levels at longer-dated expiries. The rise in volatility was matched by a strong skew towards OTM puts of volatility smiles at all tenors less than 3-months, indicating a strong switch in sentiment towards a demand for downside protection.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

ETH lead another attempt by spot prices to cross above the year-long highs recorded in March. With it, we saw a return to high levels of leverage in derivatives markets: high yields implied by futures prices, high perpetual swap funding rates, and a rally in short dated at-the-money implied volatility that briefly inverted the term structure. However, the rally was shorter lived and smaller in size than that which took BTC prices to all-time highs. Furthermore, while volatility continues to trade flat across the term structure at its higher, 70-80% range, futures markets report a collapse in funding back to their longer-held trend.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

After reaching locals highs of $71k and $3.7k earlier in the week, both BTC and ETH spot prices have fallen. This pullback has resulted in a slight decrease in demand for leveraged long exposure, reinforced by the increased skew towards puts in the smiles of both majors. However, excess demand for downside protection is less extreme when compared to earlier in the month where the 25-delta risk reversal skew for BTC and ETH reached lows of -9% and -17% respectively. Rather, the bearish turn in derivatives appears to be a repeat of the leverage flush out that we have seen several times during this rally. Implied volatility has risen for both majors, and particularly in short-dated tenors which has resulted in a flattening of the volatility term structure from its previously steep shape.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

After a pullback earlier in the week, both BTC and ETH have bounced to $70k and $3.7k respectively. Future-implied yields have risen, whilst implied volatility for both majors remains within a tight range. Perpetual swap funding rates remain positive, but low. The term structure for BTC and ETH - which was previously inverted - has corrected, with implied volatility at short-dated tenors falling below the volatility at long-dated tenors, suggesting reduced demand for long volatility exposure at shorter tenors. Furthermore, the 25-delta put/call skew has increased for both majors, indicating that traders are less worried about buying protective puts to hedge possible impending downside.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

We previously observed increased demand for downside protection, indicating that the market may be positioning itself against any potential retrace. Following a rally to all-time high levels, the market has pulled back. Short-dated tenors show a significant decrease in spot yields for BTC and ETH, signalling a shift in near-term market sentiment. Funding rates, although positive, have cooled from their monthly highs, indicating reduced demand for leveraged long exposure. Fluctuations in BTC and ETH's ATM vols suggest ongoing market uncertainty. Additionally, the 25-Delta Risk Reversal has shifted towards puts at short-dated tenors, indicating a bearish sentiment that is more pronounced in ETH than BTC.

Future-implied yields and perpetual swap funding rate showcase the high demand for leveraged long exposure enjoyed by traders during the rally in spot prices to all-time high levels. We also see a slightly inverted term structure of volatility, suggesting high demand for long volatility exposure at shorter tenors. However, the breakthrough of the psychological $70K and $4K barriers has brought with it an increased demand for downside protection in 3- to 6-month tenor puts (and more prominently for ETH), indicating that the market may be positioning itself against any potential retrace below the freshly printed recorded levels.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Weekly crypto-derivatives market analytics, spanning futures, options, and perpetuals.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

October has brought implied volatility back into the mid-50s once again, as strong demand for participation in any further upwards moves sees the skew of both majors volatility miles move further towards calls. Despite the strong anticipation, however, realised volatility remains very close to historical lows. This leaves the volatility ratio of both BTC and ETH options at its highest since 2019, a spread that we believe cannot be attributed entirely to ETF speculation.

Weekly crypto-derivatives market analytics, spanning futures, options, and perpetuals.

This week's edition of our DeFi Analytics report.

Weekly crypto-derivatives market analytics, spanning futures, options, and perpetuals.

The Ethereum network's pivot to a new consensus mechanism in September 2022 caused a dramatic shakeup to the reward system available to blockbuilders. Maximal extractable value, previously merely a popular side project for Proof of Work miners, has now become the most attractive reward stream for validators, and understanding its nuances is key to a profitable validator operation.

The Ethereum network boasts the biggest Decentralised Finance ecosystem of any blockchain, an ecosystem supported by a network of smart contracts that allow for composable blocks of code to be executed by validators in the form of onchain transactions. The computation required by a transaction is performed by the validators (analogous to Bitcoin's miners) who create new blocks on the chain and is paid for in ETH by the sender.

In mid-September 2022, Ethereum’s blockchain completed its long-awaited merge into a Proof of Stake chain, deprecating the Proof of Work system that has found consensus for the network since its inception in 2015. The Merge marks the most significant event in crypto to date, as the community has never seen such a drastic change to such a high-profile chain, and with such unpredictable consequences. It represents the culmination of many years of research and testing by both the Ethereum foundation and its community and is just one step on a long roadmap of planned upgrades.

Weekly crypto-derivatives market analytics, spanning futures, options, and perpetuals.

Ethereum has emerged as a prominent and transformative force in the world of blockchain and decentralised finance, revolutionising the concept of digital currencies and paving the way for countless innovative applications. With its robust infrastructure and vibrant ecosystem, Ethereum continues to captivate the imagination of developers, entrepreneurs, and investors alike with an evolving ecosystem. As part of that evolution, the Ethereum Foundation has released a roadmap of planned upgrades, intended to enhance the network’s scalability, security, and sustainability. The transition from a Proof-of-Work (PoW) consensus mechanism to a Proof-of-Stake (PoS) model in the Merge was the first (and maybe most ambitious!) of these upgrades. Completed in mid-September 2022, the shift required a stunning feat of blockchain and community engineering to put an end to Ether mining and instead derive the blockchain’s security and reliability from staking. After over two and a half years since the genesis block of the Beacon Chain, and ten successful months of PoS-powered blocks post the Merge, Ether staking has grown from infancy to an established & maturing practice.

In this second part of our examination of Ethereum staking rewards we will perform a deep-dive analysis of execution layer rewards, describe and assess the contribution of Maximal Extractable Value (MEV) to a staker’s income, and review the drivers of MEV and its link to price volatility. We hope that you enjoy the full report, from which several key findings are outlined below.

Derivative and spot markets have been quick to react to the the recent speculation regarding President-elect Trump's executive crypto order. Futures yields and perp funding rates have skyrocketed with implied vol levels reflecting similar sentiment. China meets its annual growth target amidst extensive monetary and fiscal stimulus and there are interesting, new developments in DeFi for the Bitcoin ecosystem.

With the recent lack of crypto-positive news, spot prices have been at the helms of macro drivers which haven't been great for risk-on sentiment either. However, risk-assets were buoyed on by the U.S. CPI print yesterday with Bitcoin trading close to the $100K mark once again. Skew levels for BTC and ETH have shifted their bearish tilt from OTM puts towards calls for short-tenors.

Markets are eagerly awaiting the U.S. December CPI release. We believe should the figures exceed expectations, Bitcoin is likely to experience a short, but sharp move downwards. Following yesterday's spot price move up, ETH's term structure has inverted and Bitcoin's is flat.

In the face of a second week of potentially scary macro data releases, and despite FUD caused by speculation of the U.S.’s selling of $6.5B worth of bitcoins, BTC spot bounced decisively from $90K levels to trade closer to $97K this morning. Derivatives markets remain supportive of the move: futures yields are positive and trending higher, with short tenors rallying harder to invert the term structure.

Gold has a long history as a medium of exchange in the global financial system. However existing forms of trading gold all come with significant trade-offs. This report serves as a comprehensive deep dive into Paxos Gold – a tokenised stablecoin backed by gold reserves that offers investors an alternative avenue to own investment-grade physical gold with all the benefits of the blockchain.

A bearish crypto market sees a flight to (relative) safety, as Bitcoin dominance remains solid despite its historical post-halving performance. A tough week of macro data last week could be followed by another this week, with markets expecting an uptick in CPI. Crypto options markets signal bearish sentiment in the short term, with skew favoring puts on BTC and ETH. Regulatory developments add to the uncertainty, with Bybit restricting services in India, Polymarket banned in Singapore, and Mango Markets shutting down operations following an SEC settlement.

Crypto-assets are showing a slight recovery today, ahead of this afternoon’s much anticipated U.S. Nonfarm Payroll Report. Should that report show a blowout number of jobs added in December beyond the 160,000 expectation, the JOLTS Report earlier this week sheds some insight into how risk-assets may react. Derivatives markets are showing mixed messages as they try to price in the varying outcomes. AI tokens and AI agents are also outperforming the market significantly.

With BTC, ETH, and most of the majors all moving downwards today, derivatives markets are showing a cautionary tale too. Both BTC and ETH's volatility smiles are skewed strongly towards puts for short-tenor options. However, it's not just spot prices that are moving down slowly, as the Fed's sticky inflation adversary dominated much of the Meeting Minutes. In China, the opposite battle is unwinding, unravelling an interesting relationship between U.S. and China's interest-rate differentials and their relationship to BTC.

Yesterday’s good news regarding the health of the U.S. economy did not go down all that well in spot and derivative markets. Futures-implied yields have collapsed to their lowest levels in over a month and ETH's funding rate has turned negative, a strong indication of bearish sentiment.

The institutional flow of capital was itching to get Bitcoin above $100K with two consecutive trading days of Spot ETF inflow levels last seen in November. However, derivatives markets weren't quite in the mood to join the party when BTC did eventually push past that level – BTC has entered a new regime where $100K is no longer a catalytical event for volatility or further rallies. Perhaps rightly so, as today's JOLTS report has sent risk assets back down again.

Despite BTC’s spot price moving firmly back into bullish territory at the turn of the year, the positive momentum of sentiment in derivatives markets did briefly falter. The slowing down in sentiment momentum however is more true for ETH than it is for BTC and ETH's funding rates and futures-implied yields show this despite remaining net-bullish. It is a big week for macro as NFP figures for December is expected to show a strong labour market and MicroStrategy has a new party trick to help fundraise further Bitcoin purchases.

BTC and ETH have stabilised after brief rallies, with BTC rangebound and ETH holding near $3,500, while ADA has surged 10% to $1.06, decoupling from the broader market. Implied volatility has dipped across shorter tenors but remains elevated longer-term, with ETH showing a sharper decline in demand for upside exposure. Market sentiment remains cautious, influenced by ETH Spot ETF outflows and separately, selling pressure from SUI's token unlock.

The year starts green with a New Years rally across crypto markets – amongst the top 10 by market-cap, all majors are up, with XRP being a stand-out performer. Derivatives metrics are portraying the sentiment too – with perp funding rates for BTC and ETH up, as well as short-tenor futures yields. Options markets are equally showing a similar willingness for long exposure.

Crypto markets move sideways yet Bitcoin has found footing at the $94K mark, and ETH is ranging around $3.4K. Despite MicroStrategy's acquisition of 2,138 BTC for $209M, significant outflows in Spot BTC ETFs ($377.6M) have maintained downward pressure, contributing to a cautious sentiment reflected in BTC skew. Short-term volatility smiles lean towards downside protection, but longer tenors signal optimism, with expectations for price increases after the New Year.

BTC drops again to $93.8k and ETH remain range-bound between $3.3–$3.5k, as broader crypto markets continue their bearish trend. Implied volatility levels have dipped across tenors, reflecting low activity, while skew indicates cautious optimism for BTC and broader outperformance by ETH. Macro concerns persist as the U.S. debt ceiling debate looms, adding to the risk averse macro backdrop.

The illiquid Christmas period continues as the S&P 500, Nasdaq, and Dow Jones barely moved yesterday. U.S. Treasury yields on the longer-end of the yield curve did ease slightly however, with 10Y tenors dropping in yesterday's session. After 4 consecutive trading days of strong outflows, the Spot BTC ETFs finally recorded net inflows of $475.2M. Derivatives metrics largely reflect the same sentiment as they did yesterday with BTC and ETH's at-the-money volatility term structure largely unchanged. Both majors' volatility smiles indicate continued cautiousness in the short-term with long-run expectations for a continuation of the bull-run.

Yesterday BTC ranged at the $98K level before briefly touching $99.9K – we didn’t get everything that we asked for on our Christmas list as it now changes hands closer to $95K. Most of the market is back to a sea of red – within the top 10, only two coins are green on the day. But while traditional markets are quieter over the break, we would not discount crypto signalling any larger macroeconomic event in this period. Without any obvious macroeconomic data releases expected until the new year, it’s unexpected macro news that we are on the lookout for as likely drivers of volatility.

It’s a quieter day in Trad-Fi as the market closes for Christmas day, but U.S. treasuries continue to feel the pressure with the 2s10s yield curve steepening further. Whilst Trad-Fi markets rest, crypto has had a relatively quieter day too, though we do see some signs of life as BTC looks ready to at least try close the year above the $100K mark. December’s end-of-year options expiration is poised to be one of the biggest yet though we believe that it is unlikely to create much volatility beyond Friday.

Altcoin holders are feeling a slight weight fall off their shoulders as ETH trades up 2% on the day, and SOL is up nearly 5%. Amongst the top 10 cryptocurrencies by market-cap (excluding stablecoins) only BTC is down. ETH’s term structure is also no longer inverted, with implied vol levels compressed close together at all tenors. MicroStrategy remains unphased, purchasing another 5,262 bitcoins last week. BTC and ETH Spot ETFs diverge.

The crypto market is still largely red, with Friday's end of year options expiry contract painting a different image of sentiment for BTC and ETH. It is not just crypto which has reacted to Chair Powell's role of the 'Grinch' however. The long-end of the US Treasury yield curve has sold off with 10Y yields rallying from 4.39% to 4.54%, their highest level in over six months.

Crypto markets are in turmoil with Bitcoin plunging -7.7% in 24 hours, flipping market odds for December price targets on their head. Despite the short-term chaos, long-term bullish sentiment persists - could this be the dip before a rally?

As BTC pushed its all-time high even further last night to $107,822, we explore the daily change in at-the-money implied volatility and implied volatility skews across BTC and ETH. Alongside, we share key announcements on 2 new stable coins: the RLUSD launch and the USDtb and outline upcoming macro data releases which set the economic background for crypto markets.

With BTC reaching a new all-time high (ATH) of $106,443, we explore the daily change of at-the-money implied volatility and implied volatility skews across BTC and ETH. Alongside, we highlight the impact of this rally on specific altcoins and outline the macro drivers expected to impact crypto- specifically the Fed cuts later this week.

In recent years, financial institutions have shown increasing interest in blockchain technology and the digitisation of financial products. A prominent application of blockchain is the tokenization of Real-World Assets (RWAs), where digital tokens are created to represent physical assets, such as fixed-income products. These tokenized fixed-income products, like bonds, aim to leverage blockchain technology to provide steady yields with relatively low risk. Blockchain promises several benefits for fixed-income products, including enhanced transparency, reduced transaction costs, and faster settlement times. However, questions remain as to whether these tokenized instruments truly deliver on these promises.

Macroeconomic data from jobs to inflation is sending mixed signals for the U.S. economy, making the last stretch against inflation increasingly difficult. This uneasiness is reflected in derivatives — at-the-money options’ implied volatility levels are showing a decline at the front end of the term structure for BTC and ETH. The State of Texas provides some positive news for crypto.

With the Fed receiving the greenlight for another rate cut in December after an as expected CPI print, crypto-assets have begun a broad based recovery rally. At short and long tenors, traders are signalling a continuous preference for upside exposure in BTC. Spot ETH ETF flows seem at odds with price action and the ECB finds itself in a challenging situation.

November's CPI data met expectations, with core CPI steady at 3.3% for the fourth consecutive month and headline YoY CPI rising slightly to 2.7% from 2.6% in October. Bitcoin's market dominance has been recovering post-election, currently hovering around 57%. Microsoft shareholders rejected a proposal to allocate 1% of the company's $78 billion cash reserves to Bitcoin, aligning with the board's recommendation.

MicroStrategy's Bitcoin fundraising techniques continue as they now own over 2% of the total BTC supply. Tech-giant Microsoft may follow in a similar fashion pending a shareholder vote. Spot ETF inflows continue and BTC regains some of its leaked market cap dominance over the past couple weeks. The wider macro picture as we approach the year end is one of uncertainty, both in monetary policy and geopolitical trade policy, as major central banks across the globe convene for the final time of the year over the next two weeks.

BTC and ETH showed stable, sideways movement over the weekend but declined on Monday morning, with BTC trading around $98K and ETH at $3,870. BTC’s at-the-money implied volatility term structure, previously steepened during sideways price action, has flattened due to a rise in front-end volatility. ETH’s term structure has inverted, an unusual occurrence during a spot price slide, as such inversions have recently happened mostly during bullish rallies, making this situation notably different.

Crypto’s capability for volatility has been proven to all new market participants over the last two days. After steaming through $100K then experiencing a flash crash to $93K, BTC perp funding rates briefly turned negative for the first time since August. A steep drop in BTC perp open interest also suggested some leveraged positions did indeed get flushed out, though the fall in OI was not incredibly deep compared to previous moves. Vol smile skew indicates traders expressing demand for downside protection, but not yet willing to give up upside positions. ETH shows a different picture with skew leaned towards calls and all-time high Spot ETF inflows. NFP all but confirms a Dec rate cut.

In the middle of a bull run, two quiet days of macro is rare. After a relatively quieter day for macro yesterday, a storm of events including Chair Powell's likening of Bitcoin to digital gold helped push BTC straight through the wall it has repeatedly tried and failed to breach since the election: the $100K mark. Implied vol skyrocketed at the front end of the term structure and perp funding rates jumped to extreme highs reaching 0.11% from just 0.015% indicating a strong willingness by traders to maintain their leveraged long exposure to BTC. Finally, despite crossing $100K, BTC’s post-halving performance is still the worst of any cycle so far — though any further action above current levels in the short term would likely push the current cycle above 2016’s.

Yesterday’s stronger-than-expected JOLTS report and trio of Fed speakers (who mainly used FOMC’s boilerplate language on monetary policy) proved not to be enough to move macro markets. Hitting the brakes may well turn out to be an option for the Fed but altcoins are showing no signs of slowing down. BTC's term structure has steepened significantly amidst rangebound price whilst ETH derivatives metrics suggest market players are seeking continued upward exposure.

We said it would be a big week for macro and, two days in, things are certainly playing out that way. French 10Y OATs are around 2012 eurozone crisis levels. Fed speeches have pushed implied-odds for a December rate cut higher. Altcoins continue to rally, as total stablecoin supply reaches new highs. In derivatives, BTC skew is leaning towards short-tenor puts, whilst ETH skew indicates traders having a continued appetite for upside exposure to calls.

This week attention turns to the Fed ahead of their Dec 18, 2024 meeting. JOLTS on Tuesday, NFP on Friday, and a slew of Fed speakers are expected to shed light on the health of the U.S. labour market after last-months non-report. Ripple is the latest altcoin to enjoy a rally above and beyond majors, overtaking stablecoins and Solana to become the third largest cryptocurrency by market cap. However, Bitcoin dominance remains above 55%.

Blob gas usage is still incredibly strong as Layer 2 activity remains high. The spot price volatility may also have seen some stakers unlock their tokens and take profits, as we observe a drop in the amount of ETH staked on the Beacon Chain.

Crypto markets quieter over thanksgiving, but still express their bullish positioning in derivatives markets as BTC takes another run at its next price target. ETH outperformance is on hold, delaying any hopes of an altcoin until at least tomorrow. The Fed's December meeting will be informed by NFP numbers next week, after last month's numbers were confounded by strikes and hurricanes.

Sui is a Layer-1 blockchain with smart contract capabilities, similar to other well known blockchains such as Ethereum and Solana. Sui blocks are created by a set of Delegated Proof-of-Stake authorities known as validators, which perform checks on transactions in the network, incorporate them into blocks and propose their blocks to all other validators. Sui’s consensus protocol, Mysticeti, then puts transactions into an order before executing and finalising them. This is how Mysticeti's consensus mechanism works.

The Fed's December meeting is facing the same market scrutiny as September's as the probability of a pause in interest rate cuts is mulled against stubbornly persistent PCE inflation. BTC validated stubbornly bullish positioning in futures and perps markets that we highlighted yesterday as it re-rallied back to $98.5K before pulling back. ETH has underperformed on the day, but fundamentals remain strong in the midst of excess bullish positioning.

The post-election “up-only” rally in crypto seemingly hit a roadblock this morning – although we note that the real bearish positioning in options markets was limited to short tenor options, and even then the skew looked bearish because of (we speculate protective) put-buying, rather than unwinding of bullish call positioning. Ethereum continues its outperformance in derivatives markets, with yields now more bullish than BTC. This could result in further inflows to the ETH ETFs, continuing a 3-trading day trend in inflows that contrast with BTC's outflows. MicroStrategy's latest Bitcoin acquisition will be funded by $3B in convertible notes, which we break down in today's note.

Bitcoin trades 5% lower on the day, pausing its relentless charge towards the key $100K figure at least for now. So too have altcoins paused their outperformance of BTC, retaining their correlation on the way down after outperforming BTC on the way up over the last week. Derivatives markets have reacted at short tenors only as of yet, with increased put buying causing a strong bearish skew rather than a fall in the implied volatility of short-tenor calls. Donald Trump revives fears of stronger tariffs after his pick for Treausry secretary dialled them back yesterday, and attention turns to the Fed as November's meeting minutes are released ahead of a toss-up decision in December's meeting.

Bitcoin dominance is on watch as Ethereum sustains its sharp outperformance following Gensler's exit announcement last week. Derivatives markets shift attention to ETH bullishness, strongly inverting its term structure while BTC's remains "just" flat, seemingly the first time since the election that ETH has enjoyed a significantly more dislocated term structure than BTC. However, it is 2020 / 2021 favourites that have recorded the best returns over the last week. Trump's latest administration pick is taken well by markets, leading some to revise their expectation for the more extreme impacts of tariffs.

President-elect Trump's promise to rid crypto of the spectre of Gary Gensler appears to come true, as the current SEC chair announces his departure from the role on inauguration day. ETH legged up on the day, along with several other previous SEC targets, and derivatives markets price in a bullish skew towards OTM calls at both short and long tenors. However, the move does not move the cross-pair back beyond election-day levels and ETH Spot ETFs record a 6th consecutive trading day of outflows regardless -- in contrast to BTC's $1B inflows on Thursday.

Bitcoin tries for $100K. Longer-dated volatility has finally followed the front-end of the term structure higher after two weeks of inversion -- as we highlighted in yesterday's comment. Short-dated ETH skews remain pinned while longer-dated stuff expresses increasing bullish sentiment, despite a pickup in onchain activity. Trump mulls a "crypto-czar" role for his incoming administration.

The term structure of volatility has re-inverted once again – and again in tandem with a rally higher in spot, continuing the spot-volatility correlation that we’ve been repeatedly highlighting in previous daily comments. This time, however, the longer-dated stuff has started to rally too. See that in the chart below, where the 180d tenor (with June the closest listed expiry) meaningfully followed shorter-dated vols higher for the first time.

Derivatives markets retain the bullish trend of the past weeks. Spot yields are almost reaching the positive highs of the past week, skew levels and funding rates remain strongly positive. The term structure of implied volatility is still inverted – but not as extremely as during the pre-election frenzy. The level of inversion has followed spot upward frequently since the election. The BTC Spot ETFs recorded inflows of $254.8 million yesterday, as the SEC approved the listing of options settling to BTC Spot ETFs – first BlackRock’s IBIT on the Nasdaq exchange, and then others on the NYSE and CBOE respectively. This isn’t the first US offering of crypto options – CME currently offer options on BTC and ETH that settle to the futures on their same market. However, we expect that it will open the floodgates to a growing interest in structured products, and for those structured products to have an impact on the supply and demand of volatility in existing crypto options markets.

Derivatives markets reflect the start-of-week bullishness. Sentiment indicators have been growing more bullish alongside the growth in short-tenor vols. Market participants are seeking exposure to upward price movements through call options and futures yields have been on the rise just as perp funding rates are strongly positive, indicating leverage buildup for both tokens.

ETH gave up almost all of its post-election gains against BTC even before the turn in the market, returning to trend since Nov 9. ETH has temporarily bucked its trend of underperformance against BTC several times in 2024, spiking higher following news of both BTC’s and ETH’s spot ETF launches. So far each catalyst has been just that – temporary. BTC pulled back 1.5% following Chair Powell’s speech, in line with the pullback of 0.6% in the S&P 500 – the two risk-on assets have increased their correlation since the election. Now that the election event risk is over we are watching the pace of rate cuts and health of the U.S. economy again as a potential driver of price action in what remains of 2024.

Derivatives market activity has remained bullish during the bull run that propelled Bitcoin prices above $90,000, and has remained stubbornly bullish too through each pause in the rally. Future implied yields remain at extended levels despite the pull back in spot to $85K and the volatility term structure is still inverted (strangely, without an explosion higher in longer-dated vols). BTC volatility smiles have skewed towards upside exposure across the term structure after, the brief pause in the rally saw the 14-day and 30-day tenors briefly lose their upside tilt.

Four of the five worst performing large-cap tokens over the last 7 days are stablecoins: USDC, USDT, and Dai, First Digital USD. They haven’t depegged, they just haven’t rallied like everything else. AI and compute-related tokens populate much of the list of top performers – the category, like DeFi and other developer-reliant categories, stands to benefit from the incoming administration’s promised regulatory push. BTC Spot ETFs saw another inflows of $1.1B on Monday. All U.S. Spot ETFs have recorded net inflows of $8.3B since Oct 10, totalling 31% of their total inflows of $26.97B since launch.

BTC hit new all-time highs again over the weekend, currently trading near its high at $82.2K. ETH continued to enjoy a new period of outperformance. This post-election rally has kept positioning in derivatives markets at extreme levels for both majors – funding rates are strongly positive, futures prices range further above spot, and the term structure of implied volatility has reinverted after collapsing at the front end following the election.

In last night’s FOMC meeting, the Federal Reserve lowered the target range for the Fed Funds Rate by 25 bps, to 4.5-4.75% in a unanimous decision. Fed Chair Jerome Powell said it is “remarkable how well the U.S. economy has been performing”, citing it as “better than any global peers”.

Donald Trump has been elected as the 47th President of the United States, currently holding 277 Electoral College Votes and battleground states including Georgia, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. BTC rallied to a new life-time high as the result became clear, reaching a peak of $75,368. Implied volatility dropped drastically for short tenors, flattening BTC’s term structure while short tenor vol has gone further to exhibit a steep term structure.

Ahead of the U.S. presidential election, we observe a notable increase in leveraged positioning across futures and perpetual markets, alongside inverted options term structures. Funding rates remain positive, and front-end implied yields have lifted, reflecting traders’ growing election-driven sentiment. Short-dated options demand has surged, particularly for Nov 8 expiries, driving implied volatility up. These developments mirror pre-event trends seen before the January ETF launch, though volatility levels are lower this time around.

Bitcoin has long been touted as digital gold. However, despite both rallying to all-time highs in 2024, the correlation of BTC returns has been closer to US equities than gold. Now, following the first in the Fed's cycle of interest rate cuts, we re-examine the macro drivers of BTC spot returns and suggest a reason for BTC and gold's underperforming correlation that may have been resolved over the summer of 2024.

Crypto as a 24/7 market was the first to react to the macro sentiment and this same drop was shortly replicated across the global markets as they opened. We expect this correlation to continue into September, with a chance of significant volatility into the run up to the next Fed meeting. The extent to the Fed's dovish shift against Bank of Japan’s hawkish stance will be key factors in shaping how the macro sentiment evolves over the coming months.

Former President and Republican candidate Donald Trump has positioned himself as the pro-crypto candidate, leading Bitcoin to enjoy bullish price action as part of the "Trump Trade". The relationship between crypto and politics has become clear via Polymarket, an emerging decentralised prediction market on the Polygon blockchain that allows for 24/7 trading of a wide range of sporting and political events. As a result, Polymarket has become a go-to tool to monitor election odds and has frequently revealed a different perspective on the campaign.

A dramatic series of macro events have shaped the dynamics of spot and volatility so far this summer, causing tumultuous spot drops followed by sudden rebounds. Volatility has hence seen incredible peaks and fluctuations over the course of the past month, as well as market sentiment, with oscillating preference between BTC and ETH. The market also shows signs of cautiousness, with strong preference for OTM puts for shorter tenors but overall being bullish for the long term.

The sudden and unexpected approval of a spot ETH ETF in the US resulted in a drastically different response from volatility markets when compared to the length and heavily anticipated approval process of BTC's ETF in early January. Given the different flavour of uncertainty that comes with an approval but no start date, we see a significant premium assigned to ETH volatility at all tenors over BTC. In addition, ETH's OTM calls trade at a significant premium to its OTM calls across the term structure in stark contrast to the bearish positioning indicated by BTC's vol smiles, indicating bullish positioning ahead of a potential July trading date.

While the first quarter saw inflation refuse to continue the fall that it posted in the first half of last year, last week's CPI read of 3.4% marked the first fall in the pace of inflation of the year and took the wind out of the argument that a reacceleration in inflation may even see the Fed consider further hikes. With markets still pricing out many of the cuts that they foresaw at the turn of the year, we remain attentive to several metrics that may show the first signs of softening in the economy, evaluate the state of swaptions volatility markets, and consider the likely implications of the 3 week wait for June's NFP release on risky assets, and on Bitcoin volatility markets in particular.

The Bitcoin halving is a core feature of Bitcoin. Roughly every four years, the reward miners earn is halved in order to reduce the new supply of bitcoin to the market, ultimately resulting in a fixed, finite supply of 21,000,000. We cover the event's significant impact on the profitability of mining, and analyse how it has changed over the three halvings that the network has successfully processed. In the sequel, we will discuss the other side of the miner profitability coin – costs – and develop a mining cost metric that will allow us to compare the cost to mine a bitcoin with its market price.

Equities rallied in March 2023 as the US Banking Crisis indicated that the Fed's hiking cycle may be reaching its end. When they delivered several more hikes, equities reversed their gains. However, when the Autumn brought a second round of interest rate cut bets, equities rallied once more. This time, the market pricing those cuts out did not cause equities to retrace. Instead, we have seen a strong rally into the first quarter of 2024 that has not lead to an increase in implied volatility or protective put-buying skews of the volatility surface. What is driving the rally now, and how long can it be sustained?

Ethereum’s Dencun upgrade is intended to make storing Layer 2 blockchain data on Ethereum’s mainnet cheaper. This will be achieved by making changes (detailed in part one of this report) to the way that L2s pay for gas by creating an independent gas market for data storage. This decision has implications on the amount of gas used by non-L2 applications or users on the regular gas market, the amount of ETH that will be burned in each block (via the base fee) and the rate earned by Ethereum stakers.

On the 13th of March, Ethereum nodes are expected to implement an update to the network: EIP-4844, also known as “proto-danksharding”. This update introduces a new transaction type that is intended to reduce the cost of posting L2 rollup data to the Ethereum mainnet by including a dedicated storage space. We discuss the high transaction fees that motivate the upgrade, how EIP-4844 is intended to address this issue, and the implications proto-danksharding may have on the base fee, the amount of ETH burnt, and staking rates.

September saw the continuation of two trends: first, we continue to see OTM optionality priced near to its highest levels relative to the ATM level of implied volatility as the volatility smiles of both assets remain near to their historically steepest levels. Second, ETH’s implied volatility is still below the levels priced by BTC’s derivatives markets having continued the trend that it began following The Merge in September last year. However, a similar trend in the ratio of their realised volatility appears to have settled, with the ratio trading sideways near to 1 since the middle of 2023.

Several event risks are appearing on the horizon that indicate significant uncertainty for crypto-asset prices, including a follow-up ETF application deadline, the halving of Bitcoin's block reward, and two chances for the first cut in interest rates after the sharpest hiking cycle in decades.

The correlation of changes in BTC spot price to those of US equity indices has fallen since February of this year to a near-zero statistical relationship. Whilst both have retraced significant losses sustained in 2022, BTC's has recorded its strong YTD performance of +86% independently of movements in the both the S&P 500 and the Nasdaq 100 indices. We also observe a fall in the correlation between changes in the implied volatility of BTC and ETH as measured by our own implied volatility index, the BSIV. This index shows little correlation between the volatility implied by options on BTC and the S&P 500, despite a strong historical relationship between their spot prices

The year ahead will be the year of volatility. While the latest economic data do show signs that inflation is moderating, employment remains strong, and growth is resilient, market pricing is certainly tilted towards the probability of a successful soft-landing. The building expectations mean that any deviation from the best-case scenario path could see considerable corrections in the year to come, with heightened sensitivity in risk-on assets to macroeconomic data releases.

In September 2022, Ethereum eschewed its Proof of Work roots and switched to a Proof of Stake consensus mechanism. At the same time, it began a period of significant under-performance against BTC. Contrary to the consensus view that several tailwinds will see Ethereum outperform Bitcoin in the coming year, our analysis suggests that its inability to succeed against Bitcoin with existing pressures on supply indicates a structural re-pricing of the asset following the Merge.

The Fed’s 25bps rate came with an unsettling hawkish tone from Chair Powell, jolting markets and unveiling the prospect of fewer 2025 cuts. Traders re-evaluate their risk-on strategies as both equities and crypto see red.

Markets brace for pivotal central bank decisions this week. We analyse the latest shifts in sentiment across crypto with a focus on bitcoin’s volatility smiles, funding rates, and spot price trends. Read now to explore the cautious tone gripping traders, muted OTM call activity, and key data points shaping market sentiment.